Supports for children who have special needs have been legally mandated for several decades in the United States. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act became law in 1990 and was updated in 2004. Public schools must provide Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) for students with documented needs that meet the law’s specified criteria. IEPs identify needed accommodations, special education services, and supplementary aids as well as their frequency and duration. Montessori guides who teach in public school settings typically collaborate with special educators and service providers (for example, occupational therapists) within their district to provide appropriate services for children who have exceptionalities. Children who attend independent Montessori schools are also entitled to federally supported services through IDEA provisions.
In addition to accommodations (services and supplementary aids specified in children’s IEPs), Montessori guides often need to adjust classroom practices. Depending on each child’s individual needs and strengths, adjustments can affect how guides teach lessons, demonstrate materials, design the classroom environment, assist children during transitions, facilitate conflicts, and address a myriad of other day-to-day interactions. The following chapter provides examples of how Montessori guides support children with exceptionalities in primary (ages three through six) and lower elementary (ages six through nine) classrooms. Supports address Montessori developmental aims of concentration, independence and order, as well as fine-and-gross motor skills, cognition, and social/emotional growth.
Some guides and administrators hold the view that adjusting classic presentations or changing aspects of the work period conflict with their training and are ‘not Montessori.’ However,
changes can make the difference between a child being a successful, joyful learner or being frustrated and even miserable. The following recommendations are either current evidence-based practices or suggested by Montessori guides experienced in working with children who have exceptionalities. Every guide and school head needs to decide if these suggestions fit with her/his view of Dr. Montessori’s philosophy. Hopefully, the strategies will offer possible solutions and perhaps expand the Montessori community’s view of following each individual child.
Observation, the present level of performance, and goal setting
Before examining specific supports for learners with exceptionalities, attention must be given to determining the child’s strengths and needs. Dr. Montessori implored teachers to observe children carefully (Montessori, 1964). While pointing out that “…the teacher shall observe whether the child interests himself in the object, how he is interested in it, for how long, etc., even noticing the expression on his face…” (pp. 108 – 109), Montessori did not provide specific observational formats. Rather, she emphasized the importance of both capturing details of how children work with materials and honoring “principles of liberty” (p. 109). Montessori warned against insisting a child pursue an activity, noting this can cloud whether or not the child is truly ready to engage in exploring and learning specific concepts.
A possible translation of Montessori’s recommendations into today’s special education landscape is that teachers need to document the child’s present level of performance (Individualized Education Program, 2006). Anecdotal records (brief objective snapshot statements of a child’s performance), running records (more in-depth accounts of how a child carries out an activity or an interaction), and checklists (noting whether or not a child carried out a particular activity or behavioral expectation) are all helpful. The aim is to document as much detail as possible regarding the child’s current level of understanding and/or behavior.
If, for example, a guide is concerned that a three-year-old child concentrates for short periods of time, documentation of start and stop times of the child working with various materials will provide a clear starting point. The guide may learn that the child spends more time with practical life activities and less with sensorial materials. The guide could further note whether the child concentrates longer when working with a peer if there are differences in the child’s concentration at the beginning of the work period versus the middle or the end and if the child sustains attention for longer periods of time when playing outdoors. Careful observations and documentation will assist guides in determining, in as much detail as possible, the child’s present level of concentration.
Once the child’s present level of performance (sometimes referred to as the PLOP) is clear, guides may find it helpful to check developmentally appropriate expectations. The American Academy of Pediatrics (n.d.) partners with Healthychildren.org to provide expected milestones in the areas of movement, fine-and-gross motor skills, language, cognition, and social and emotional development. Using the above example, perhaps the guide notes that the child does not consistently follow three-part commands nor recall parts of a story. This could suggest the child is having difficulty understanding verbal explanations and reminders, leading to another round of observations.
In addition to the American Academy of Pediatrics, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) also provides information regarding expected milestones in a resource titled, “Learn the Signs – Act Early.” When Montessori guides wonder if a child is on track in any developmental domain, it is helpful to refer to several recent, professionally vetted milestones. Keeping in mind that teachers’, as well as parents’ expectations, can be either high or low, milestone ranges can be helpful guidelines.
Lower elementary guides may find academic standards helpful. State departments of education provide expectations in language arts and math for each grade level, as does the Common Core (n.d.). While the Montessori curriculum does not align completely1 with traditional reading, writing, and math expectations, guides can use academic standards to better understand a child’s level of performance. Both the National Center for Montessori Education in the Public Sector (http://www.public-montessori.org/resources/common-core-state-standards) and the Association Montessori Internationale provide suggestions for aligning Montessori with elementary standards (https://amiusa.org/ami-montessori-and-the-common-core-state-standards/).
The final—and crucial—step in determining a child’s present level of performance is to fully accept it. Guides truly need to be at peace with a child, for example, working with an activity for an average of three minutes across settings, times of the day, and with or without peers. Supporting this child in increasing his or her concentration occurs much more easily if teachers are not resisting the child’s current length of time. Thinking, “ just can’t concentrate. How can I manage our classroom when only concentrates for 3 minutes?!” adds stress for both the guide and the learner. Alternatively, accepting that the child can consistently focus for three minutes is more likely to result in planning for and then implementing a
successful change.
Once the learner’s PLOP is clearly documented, goal setting should be carried out with families. Before meeting with a family, the guide drafts a manageable, achievable goal. Then the guide listens carefully to whether or not family members agree and adjust the goal to fit the family’s needs and priorities. Working in a respectful partnership is essential to the child’s success. Ongoing, frequent communication between families and guides is especially important if a goal needs to be altered once interventions are implemented.
The guide then shares evidence of the child’s learning with parents. A portfolio of photos, videos, and work samples helps families understand what the child is able to do and where the child is struggling. Again, it is important to consider the range of ages when children reach milestones. For example, it is typical for children to produce clear /r/ sounds in their expressive speech any time between age 3 and (particularly for boys) age 7. At this point, it is important for parents to observe the classroom, not only to perhaps catch a glimpse of the concern but to view the range of skills across age levels.
Goals are discussed and agreed upon with family members. Next, determine specific ways to reach the goal. It is important to reflect upon and begin planning interventions before meeting with families. When sharing possible approaches, invite families to discuss both your suggestions and their own recommendations. Agree on a clear plan, and explore changes that could also support the child at home. Both guides and families find it helpful to document the agreed-upon plans, whether with a quick email or a simple hard copy.
Strengthening concentration
The previous example addressed helping a three-year-old child increase the average length of time working with an activity. It is important to note that difficulty concentrating is not considered a special need according to IDEA criteria. However, it is often a component of a language disorder, an intellectual disability, or even an emotional disorder. And difficulty focusing on a task or activity can ‘simply’ be associated with a child’s temperament. Since concentration is a key component of Montessori learning and difficulty sustaining attention can be associated with an exceptionality, it serves as the premise for an example of how to implement effective supports.
Perhaps the family and guide agreed that concentrating for five minutes (on average) is an achievable goal. The guide observed that the child stayed with an activity longer as the morning work period progressed. However, arrival, settling in, and choosing an initial activity appeared to be particularly difficult. The guide also observed that the child enjoyed the book reading area of the classroom and often looked at books for up to five minutes. The guide suggested (and the family agreed) that an adult (either himself or his assistant) read a story that the child selected for at least two minutes at the beginning of the work period. The adult would then lead the child to either practical life or sensorial (preferred areas), offer the child two choices (for example a knobbed cylinder block or the demonstration tray of the geometric cabinet), and gently remind the child to complete the work before returning it to the shelf.
Several components of a potentially successful outcome are present in this scenario:
1. Beginning the work period with adult support of a preferred activity (story reading)
2. Making a choice between two specific preferred activities (rather than choosing from the whole array of activities in practical life or sensorial)
3. Listening to a gentle reminder of expected behavior (complete either the demo tray or the cylinder block before returning it to the shelf)
Children in lower elementary classrooms who struggle with concentration issues require supports suited to their developmental levels. They are typically able to monitor their own time with a personal watch or a classroom clock. Often, they enjoy beating their time by, seeing if they can concentrate for an additional five minutes. Lower elementary students are also able to use self-talk more effectively. For example, reading or reciting a statement similar to the following can be helpful.
“I am learning to focus longer and longer on my work. Today I am aiming for 15 minutes. I know I can do it!”
Lower elementary students also enjoy visual displays of their progress. Guides can assist them in making their own daily and weekly graphs, showing the number of minutes they focused successfully on their work. Guides can either send families a hard copy or an electronic file of the learner’s graph each evening.
Rochester (MN) Montessori School lower elementary guide, Andy Sawyer, stated his single most effective support for students working to stay focused has been offering an opportunity to run several laps around the school soccer field first thing in the morning. “Over half of the students in my class took advantage of our offer and ran four or five laps if the weather cooperated. This provided social time as well as a way to wake up their brains (synapse activation). It really did help everyone begin their day ready to learn.” (Sawyer, personal communication, July 2016).
The success of particular support depends on how well suited it is for an individual learner. Table 1 notes support that could prove helpful for children in Montessori primary and lower elementary classrooms who are working to strengthen concentration if careful observation reveals them to be appropriate matches for individual needs and strengths.
Encouraging independence
Montessori recognized the child’s inner drive to “do it myself” (Montessori, 1967). She urged guides (and parents) to refrain from “helping” children with any task or activity they could carry out on their own. Montessori also designed each learning material with an inherent control of error, eliminating the need for an adult to check or correct children’s work.
Occasionally, children need support in carrying out procedures independently. Photo booklets, similar in design to Social StoriesTM (Gray, 2004) can be helpful. If, for example, a child has difficulty remembering each of the steps involved with using the restroom, a guide can display sequential photos on the bathroom wall. Sequential photos can also assist children who struggle with putting on and taking off snow clothes, as well as cleaning up after lunch, or putting away work and joining classmates for a community gathering. (Please see Figure 1 for an example of a social story regarding appropriate touch.)
Assisting the development of children’s sense of order and self-discipline
Early childhood educators assist children in learning to regulate their behaviors and develop self-discipline (de la Riva & Riva, 2015). Montessori (1966) addressed a component of self-discipline by recognizing the importance of respecting children’s sense of order. She noted that “Order is one of the needs of life which, when it is satisfied, produces real happiness.” (p. 52) Montessori believed that children have an inner sense of order that is nurtured when their surroundings and routines are predictable, consistent and orderly. If this is so, and children are still not able to regulate their behaviors, guides may need to provide additional supports.
Strategies regarding multi-sensory integration can prove effective in helping children manage their behaviors and, ultimately, develop self-discipline. While not formally recognized by the U.S. Department of Education (2015) as a special need, difficulty integrating sensory input can result in learning and behavioral challenges. Recently termed “sensory processing disorder” (SPD), difficulties include unsteady balance, hypo or hypersensitivity to touch (can vary from day to day), fine-motor weakness, and poor muscle tone or coordination (Sensory Processing Disorder, n.d.). Occupational therapists typically provide services for children with SPD. There is controversy regarding the effectiveness of SPD strategies. However, occupational therapists (Sweet, 2010), special educators, and pediatricians note successful outcomes (Gourley, Wind, Hennigher, & Chinitz, 2013; Noddings, 2017). Montessorians have found success helping children regulate their behaviors (for example, impulsively touching—or shoving or hitting—a peer) by calming themselves through the use of weighted lap pads and therapy balls (with lower elementary students) for short periods of time. The use of sensory integration materials and equipment should be supervised by a knowledgeable professional (for example, a special educator serving as a consultant to the Montessori school).
Practical life and art activities such as pouring rice or water, working with play dough, and handwashing (perhaps with the option of applying a small bit of lotion) can help young children with challenging behaviors to develop self-discipline. The length of the activity is a key point. Children working to regulate their behaviors often need long works (such as polishing or dishwashing) to be shortened. Reducing the number of steps provides them with the opportunity to repeat soothing steps and not lose track of what to do next. For example, table scrubbing can be modified to include only dampening a small brush, running it over a bar of soap, scrubbing, and then drying the table with a hand towel. This allows children to repeat circular scrubbing strokes over and over, often bringing them to a calm state. Providing a variety of interesting items to scrub (large seashells, car tires, large pumpkins) and modifying the number of steps can provide children with successful self-regulation experiences that also honor and strengthen their sense of order.
Both children’s house and lower elementary guides may find it helpful to design a small area of the classroom (or even a single shelf) to house sensory items. Rainsticks, soft hand puppets, snow globes, unlit scented candles, scented hand lotion, earphones for listening to sounds in nature, and kaleidoscopes can provide relaxing sensory input. Children can have the option of selecting one of these items and ‘taking a sensory break,’ for a specified amount of time. Or, several items can be placed in a basket for children to select, take to a rug or table, and then explore as they would any other material.
Teaching young children to use specific verbalizations can also help develop self-regulation. Rochester Montessori School special educator, Diane Betzold, describes her success in working with a highly active three-year-old:
“I had worked with Sam for around a month, modeling slow movements and quiet voice levels. We worked on puzzles and read stories together in my classroom (resource room) several times a week. I also modeled the phrase, “I am calming my body” while we pursued various activities. One day, Sam’s teacher brought him to my room for unscheduled work time. Sam had been running in his classroom and was unable to focus on any activities. Red-faced and a bit out of breath, he declared, “Miss Diane, I am calming my body!” While I modeled taking a slow, deep breath, Sam repeated this phrase and did calm his body. We worked together for just another few minutes until he was ready to return to his classroom. I reminded his teacher to use this strategy with him. She later shared that modeling and encouraging Sam to calm his body was effective. (Betzold, personal communication, July 2016).
Similarly, older children may have success in repeating self-affirmations. Coupled with taking one or two deep breaths, reminders to use phrases such as “I can be calm again” and “I feel myself calming down” can help learners return to a calm state.
Supports for strengthening motor skills, cognition and memory, and social/emotional skills
Children with exceptionalities in specific developmental areas may have services documented on their IEP. Often, though, Montessori guides observe the need for supports within and across developmental domains before IEPs are developed. Fine motor supports can take the form of pencil grips and adaptive scissors. Attaching magnets to three-part cards and providing a magnetic whiteboard (or a simple aluminum cookie sheet) can offer security to a child with weak eye-hand coordination. Time riding on stationary bikes (child-sized), jumping on mini-trampolines, and walking across very low (4 to 6 inches off the floor) balance beams (children remove shoes and socks) can help children strengthen and coordinate large muscles. In addition, these activities often help children develop order, concentration, and independence.
A wide array of strategies is available to Montessori guides working with children who struggle to remember information. Reflection approaches such as SQ4R (Hartlep & Forsyth, 2000) can help children remember specific concepts and definitions. Guides can model the five components—survey, question, read, recite, writer. Self-talk (repeating definitions to oneself) and pneumonic devices can be helpful. Graphic organizers, from standard Venn diagrams to fish skeletons (Figure 2), can assist children in understanding and remembering over-lapping characteristics and relationships, including cause and effect and ‘if/then.’
Dr. Montessori identified effective cognitive strategies that have withstood the test of time while working with children who struggled with early reading, writing, and math concepts (Montessori, 1965). She modeled a multi-sensory approach by showing children how to gently stroke sandpaper letters while repeating their sounds (/a/, /a/, /a/). Guides can offer children similar opportunities with puff paint as well as felt letters and numerals. Tracing letters in farina (milled wheat) sprinkled on a tray or over zip lock bags filled with hair gel offer additional tactile experiences.
Perhaps the most effective cognitive support is careful error analysis followed by modeling and guided practice. Where does the learner become confused? If the primary-aged child cannot follow all the steps of dynamic addition, return to static addition and re-teach the process more slowly. If a silent demonstration is not effective, verbalize the steps. “I have 11 unit beads. I will exchange ten of my beads for a ten bar. Now I have one ten bar and one unit bead.” Ask the child to repeat your actions and your verbalization. Then stay with the child as he/she practices. Provide this assistance for several days. Do not step back until the child demonstrates understanding. Scaffolding instruction (Berk & Winsler, 1995) is important for all learners but is often critical for children who struggle with cognitive processing.
Supporting children who are upset, frustrated, and perhaps even aggressive can be particularly wearing for Montessori guides. Just as math and literacy skills need to be modeled, social skills must be overtly taught for some children. Grace and courtesy lessons typically include inviting a peer to work together, passing in front of another (“excuse me”), and waiting for a busy teacher’s attention (placing one’s hand on a guide’s shoulder). Addressing one’s own strong emotions and learning to resolve conflicts require step-by-step demonstrations followed by opportunities for practice. These practice lessons should take place with a willing peer when children are calm. When an actual upset occurs, guides need to calmly step in and remind children of each step.
For example, if a child (Mattie) appears to kick another child’s (Sara) pink tower, the guide first helps the kicking child identify intentions and feelings. “Are you mad at Sara?” “Would you like to work with Sara?” “Are you upset that Sara did not ask you to build the tower with her?” Then the guide asks Sara to share her feelings. “How did you feel when Mattie kicked over your tower?” Once feelings and intentions are identified, the guide facilitates a resolution. “What do you think we should do now?” Guides are often surprised at how quickly children offer the next step. Occasionally, children need ideas, but the resolution is much more effective if it is generated by participants rather than by guides.
Again, the critical component of providing supports for children who struggle with social and emotional challenges is that guides must teach these skills directly. Just as lessons are given to help children learn rhyming words and subtraction, guides need to demonstrate and then help children practice and learn conflict resolution. That said, the design of the learning environment could assist in fostering a peaceful atmosphere. Inviting work areas with small lamps, gentle miniature waterfalls, soft fabric wall hangings, quiet music, and aromatherapy suffusions add soothing sights, sounds, textures and smells to classrooms.
Dr. Montessori began her pedagogical work with children who did not learn easily. Over a hundred years later, Montessori guides continue her legacy of providing individualized instruction. Whether children have IEPs with specific services or they are in the grey area of “struggling learners,” guides have the opportunity and responsibility to provide assistance. Once the child’s present level of performance is determined, a plethora of support is available to Montessori guides. In collaboration with families and specialists, strategies are carefully selected, implemented, and monitored. If the child does not achieve the targeted goal, another support is implemented. Throughout this process, guides, are, indeed, adhering to Dr. Montessori’s original directive to respect and honor each individual child’s strengths and areas of need (Lillard, 1972; Montessori, 1964). ′
References
American Academy of Pediatrics (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/toddler/Pages/Developmental-Milestones-3-to-4-Years-Old.aspx
Berk, L. E., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children’s learning: Vygotsky and early childhood education. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
De la Riva, S., & Ryan, T. G. (2015). Effect of self-regulating behavior on young children’s academic success. International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education, 7(1), 69-96.
Common Core Standards Initiative (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/read-the-standards/
Gourley, L., Wind, C., Henninger, E. M., & Chinitz, S. (2013). Sensory processing difficulties, behavioral problems, and parental stress in a clinical population of young children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 912-922.
Gray, C. (2004). Social StoriesTM10.0 The new defining criteria & guidelines. Jennison Autism Journal, 15(4), 2-21.
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Individuals With Disabilities Education Act 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2006).
Lillard, P. (1972). Montessori: a modern approach. New York City, NY: Schocken Books.
Montessori, M. (1964). The Montessori method. New York City, NY: Schocken Books, Inc.
Montessori, M. (1965). Dr. Montessori’s own handbook: A short guide to her ideas and materials. New York City, NY: Schocken Books, Inc.
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Noddings, A. (2017). Classroom solutions for sensory-sensitive students. Montessori Life, Summer 2017, 45-49.
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Sweet, M. (2010). Helping children with sensory processing disorders: The role of occupational therapy. Odyssey, Spr/Sum 2010, 19-22.
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